Development Of Metro Rail Tourism Essay

Development Of Metro Rail Tourism Essay The functioning of Mumbai depends mainly on the transportation system for the movement of people and goods in, out and around Mumbai. It is evident from the past that introduction of railways in Mumbai has resulted in the economic growth of the city. The current public transportation depends largely on the trains and buses. As per the data by Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport, 2003 and Indian Railways, 2002, Mumbai is the only exceptional city in India which has most extensive rail network carrying more than 5 million passengers a day- 58% of total public transport passengers as compared to 42% by buses (cited in Pucher Korattyswroopam, 2004). Even after a decade, the population of Mumbai is heavily dependent on the railways as their primary mode of transportation. The citys suburban railway was built to accommodate 1700 people, but today carries more than 3 times its actual capacity. Moreover, it is said that a fleet of around 200 railways make more than 2000 trips across the city which is still proving to be insufficient day by day. The suburban trains handle a commuter population of 6 million every day, which is equivalent to the size of Sydney city. The trains also run at a very good frequency providing the right kind of option for travel (Nallathiga, 2008 p. 38). Buses too are being exploited and the roads are not capable enough to hold the burden of ever growing population. The roads, railways and the buses are getting more and more congested due to urbanisation. Moreover, there is no scope to extend this city as it is geographically surrounded by water. So the only options which remain are either to shift the traffic under the ground, over the ground or on the water. Owing to this situation, it becomes essential to investigate the transport system and come up with solutions capable enough to handle the burden in the future. It would not only strengthen the backbone of this financial capital of a rapidly growing country but will also release a l ot of pressure on the current transport facilities. Over the years, there have been many suggestions and recommendations which have been given for the development of Mumbai. Many of these projects are successfully completed or are either under construction. This research will primarily focus on the upcoming Metro Rail project which is being considered as a subordinate to the overcrowded suburban railways. The study will revolve around the difficulties faced by the project managers in implementing their decisions on such a huge scale and the strategies they need to overcome these problems. At this current stage the construction of the Metros first line which is 11.7 km stretch is under construction and is considered to be almost ready for the testing. The original deadline for the project was August 2012, but due to delays in getting right of work (ROW) permits from the government and other clearances for the project, the project will eventually see operations by the end of this year (Kumar, 2012 [online]). This can be treated as the f irst failure of the project and its management as it will be not be able to deliver the Metro Rail facility as per the committed schedule. At this point of time, a comparison of the project reports of Delhi and Kolkata Metro projects can prove handy in avoiding mistakes committed in past. Critical analysis of these reports can help in foreseeing the approaching management issues and take necessary steps. Metro rail is a huge project (as seen in figure 1.1) with many expectations to fulfil. Efficient and scheduled performance will not only benefit the economy but will also provide relief to the people of Mumbai, Government and the over stressed suburban railway. The findings from the project reports of the Metro Rail in Delhi and Kolkata can help in recognizing the threats that might affect the development of the Metro Rail in Mumbai. It will also find out the main weaknesses due to which certain plans in those projects had difficulties in successful implementation. Similarly, it wil l also benefit to understand the strengths of this project as well as the opportunities it has or will have in the future to capitalise and develop the project in a way that will pass on maximum benefits to its consumers and stakeholders. Developing a sustainable and robust transport system will contribute a big deal by laying a strong foundation to the progress of this city. The success of this research is necessary as this may further instigate a movement for a better and an efficient model of transportation system in urban cities and bring out the importance of project management in government projects across the country. mumbai-map.gif Fig 1.1 Existing Suburban Rail Map with upcoming Metro Rail routes [Source: www.urbanrail.net] Theoretical Underpinnings: The pursuit for conducting this research began after watching a couple of documentaries on the city of Mumbai. The first one was a National Geographic production known as Megacities which looked into various aspects of working models of huge cities around the world. Mumbai was the city in one of its episodes. The transportation system portrayed in it fascinated me. This was followed by a bit of research and then I came across a documentary on Bombay Railways presented by the BBC. Being born and brought up in this city, I have experienced the crowd in the trains and other public transportation. But after watching the documentaries, it inspired me to conduct a research in this area to understand the way in which projects are planned and managed at such a high level where the pressure of performance and urgency to deliver is enormous. My next point of reference was a report published by McKinsey and Company in the year 2003 which laid a plan for rehabilitation of the city of Mumbai. The se few intelligence sources form a background to my research. The focus then shifted to one of the recommendations given out in the McKinsey report being constructed in Mumbai which is the Metro Rail. This forms the main topic and the research will be conducted to overview the project management difficulties and complexities faced while carrying out such a big project in the huge city of Mumbai. Mentioned below are the theoretical academic sources that form a part of obtaining knowledge for the chosen topic. Project Management: A systems approach to planning, scheduling and controlling (2009): To commence every research, one needs a solid foundation of understanding the subject area. For project management the above mentioned book stands to be a guide. After the PMBOK (Project Management Body of Knowledge), the official project management guide by Project Management Institute, this is referred as a textbook for the certificate examination. The book is in its 10th edition written by Harold Kerzner, with more than 2500 citations. This book explains projects in various stages and gives a systematic approach towards its management. This book suits a beginner level of understanding of Project Management giving an easy understanding of basic principles. It accepts and inculcates changes taking place in the current business scenario and moreover explains them by giving case studies. The main purpose of using this book is its thorough explanation on organisational structure which would prove beneficial to understand the complex organisational structure of the public sector organis ation in India. It also includes chapters on Time and stress management, risk management and quality management which can prove beneficial for the comparison of the ongoing metro projects and its various dimensions. Successful Project Management (2005): This research deals more with the success and failure of projects. For Government projects, many like the metro rail that is being analysed in this research, it is important to maintain the balance between demands of the public, project that has been undertaken and the final product that is being offered. Successful Project Management is a book written by Trevor L Young. It starts by defining success and what it means to various people measuring it. It even takes the reader through the technical terminologies of project management and leads its way through to the steps of managing projects successfully. This book has no more than 30 citations but will be very useful for this research because the Metro Rail project needs to be measured for its success. Success means a very big deal for the projects like Metro as it is being constructed to improve the present infrastructure of a city. Moreover it even uses public funds for its construction; therefore the expectations of return from the stakeholders will be higher than any other private projects. Mass Urban Transportation in India (2008): This journal article helps in shifting focus from the project management literature to understanding the issues in mass urban transportation system, especially in Mumbai. The article is written by Ramakrishna Nallathiga who explains the growth and urbanization of Indian cities and its relation with the development of three modes of transportation i.e. rail, road and water. It tests three different cities for its development in mass transportation systems and gives out recommendations for its growth. The author takes Mumbai, Delhi and Ahmedabad as samples, defines the background of each of these citys transportation systems and tries to prove the importance of developing a robust transport system. Though the paper is not very well written, it can prove beneficial for this research as a source for a lot of valuable data compiled by the author, which would save a lot of valuable time and resources. Evaluation of Public Transport Systems: Case Study of Delhi Metro (2005): As the research gains more depth and focus, the next step will be going through the case studies. Since Mumbai Metro project is yet to be functional it might be difficult to gather all the required data. Also comparing similar Metro Rail projects already constructed in other cities of India can help in getting an idea of the issues faced by the management and examine the factors which can affect Metro Rails success when it starts in Mumbai. This journal article helps creating a literature base of the case studies. There are similarities in the objectives of this journal article and to what this research is trying to find out. The authors Mukti Advani and Geetam Tiwari try to test the success of introducing Metro Rails in three different cities in India. This will assist me in developing a critical vision to inspect the intelligence data and the documents collected from the respective organisations. This document has covered Metro Rail projects in Delhi, Chennai and Kolkata, two of wh ich shall form to be a part of this research too. Hence, linking this journal article with the Mass Urban Transportation in India article will help in gathering a lot of data and can create a platform to develop arguments once all the documents and intelligence that will be gathered. The academic sources mentioned above can set off this research with a strong base of knowledge and provide direction to further research and analysis of the secondary data and intelligence sources. These four sources are connected to each other in order of which they have provided guidance and focus for the topic of this research. The topic chosen will no doubt have many complexities, which will be systematically dealt with the proper use of research methodology. Research Methodology: This research proposes to look into the complex issues of the transportation system of one of the worlds biggest cities. It focuses mainly upon the upcoming project of Metro Rail in Mumbai and the factors affecting its construction and the problems that might affect its functioning in the future. Gathering secondary data and intelligence would prove insufficient because of the nature of this research. Collecting firsthand information and primary data particularly focussing on this research can actually help in understanding the difficulties faced by the local authorities in implementation of the plans. Hence, most of this research will be conducted in Mumbai where I will as a researcher involve myself as a part of it. Having interest in photography as well, I plan to even take some pictures for the research by myself. The research is related to social science shaping into the path of interpretive paradigm. This approach proves to be beneficial to the research because of various reasons. Interpretivists attempt to minimize the distance between the researcher and what is researched (Collis Hussey, 2009). This helps in accessing and analysing the information and is a part of the researcher himself. However as the participants are human beings, the reality is subjective and multiple depending on their view points. On the other hand it also provides a benefit to the researcher to keep an open mind and think in different directions as per the data collected. It also links to the methodological approach being used to conduct a research. Interpretivism uses an array of methodologies to help the researcher build up on a strong research. This research will be primarily based upon the intelligence such as documents provided by the local transport authorities, newspaper articles, etc. supported by the evidence in academic journals, research papers and books. Document research will be the methodology applied in analyzing Public documents. Department of Personnel and Training, Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions have setup an initiative known as Right to Information Act, 2005 giving power to the citizens to avail the information published by the State and Central Government Legislation. This would prove beneficial to gain access to the documents related to the project. Mumbai Metro Rail project is the joint venture of Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA) which is a public body, funded by the Reliance Infrastructure, a public limited company. Familiarizing oneself with these kinds of research materials can be an extremely time consuming activity, mainly because of the vastness and det ail of documents associated with official events and enquiries (Bryman Bell, 2011 p.550). It stands to be the main drawback as it might prove costly in conducting research with limited time. This will need a lot of time management which no doubt is challenging but if followed properly, will turn out to be the main feature of this entire research. The other drawback of document research is the validity and credibility of the data being used. The question of credibility raises the issue of whether or not the documentary source is biased (Bryman Bell, 2011 p.550). At this point of time, intelligence sources like newspapers, websites and magazines will help in confirming the validity and the credibility which might help in getting a clear view of actual scenario. Critical analysis of the public documents will be a priority in conducting this research. The public documents provide a lot of information both qualitative and statistical which would help a great deal in understanding the si tuations in which strategic decisions are made. Kolkata was the first city in India to adopt the Metro rail system. Delhi is also equipped with this system in the recent past. Therefore a case study analysis will also form a part of this research in which the project management of the Metro Rail systems in Kolkata and Delhi will be tested to provide data that will help in suggesting recommendations to the Mumbai metro rail project and build up a strong base of literature for the research. Studying cases of Kolkata and Delhi will also help in understanding the change in the strategic decisions taken over the period of time while undertaking the construction of these projects. This data will be collected from the secondary sources like journal articles or periodicals written by the government authorities to review their decisions taken on a particular project or by the management researchers conducting independent research. This approach will slightly direct the research towards quantitative research methodology. But this method wil l help in acquiring a lot of useful quantitative as well as qualitative data within a very short period of time and within the available resources. Secondary analysis is the analysis of data by researchers who will probably not have been involved in the collection of those data, for purposes that in all likelihood were not envisaged by those responsible for data collection (Bryman Bell, 2011). There are various advantages for using this method of data collection. The most important one is that the data collected will be reliable and of high quality as it will go through rigorous examination and scrutiny being conducted by the organisation itself to analyse their performance. At the same time there will be some drawbacks of using this methodology too. Complexity and lack of familiarity with the data will need some attention while using this research technique (Bryman Bell, 2011). Analysing and filtering the data as per the need of this research will be important to ensure the quali ty of work. This particular research is being carried out for a taught masters dissertation which puts a restriction on the time limit. Taking this research to a further level it would have been interesting to interview people who have worked for this project and also to interview commuters to ask their experience by travelling in Metro. That would have helped in understanding the effort and planning applied by the project managers and also the true success of this project. Time Plan: The main research is planned to be undertaken after the proposal is marked and accepted. As it is planned to be in Mumbai, I will fly back there on the 30th of May 2012. I shall be returning home after almost 10 months, so I wish to take a break and go on vacation with my family for 15 days. From 15th of June 2012, I shall start with the data collection process of my research. I have divided the whole data collection process in two different stages. The first stage will be going to the offices of MMRDA and Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation and collecting as much data in the form of public documents relevant to the research. The process is quite lengthy and time consuming and shall require a lot of formalities too. Therefore, I have allotted around a months time for the same. I also wish to take some photographs of the site where this project is being constructed. In the meanwhile I will start with the stage two of the data collection process i.e. collecting literature on the Project Management and Managing Transport related projects. After having sufficient literature for the topic and gathering data, I plan to start with analysing the data. From 20th of July, I shall start with the analysis of the data with the help of intelligence sources like websites and newspapers. Simultaneously, I shall even start preparing the drafts of the dissertation. Co-ordinating with my tutor, I shall send my first draft by the first week of August. Once I start writing the dissertation I plan to send drafts to my tutor every 10 days for 3 or 4 times. I have set a deadline of completing the dissertation by the first week of September i.e. before the 9th so that it allows me ample time to get it proof read from my friends who work in organisations as managers themselves and also from professionals/ managers in the Mumbai Metro project if at all they are willing to help me with it. After it is finalized and approved the final copy will be printed and bound before submitting it on t he 25th of September 2012. I even plan to take up a job after going back home, which I look as a potential threat in my research process. But completing my graduation stands as a priority and as much as possible I shall stick to the plan that I have chalked for the entire process. Ethical Consideration: By conducting this research, I accept the responsibility of doing it professionally. I assure that the research shall be within the framing of Basic Research Principles. I also assure to do this research with honesty without abusing or exploiting the trust and knowledge of the respondents. I shall not make any false or misleading statements regarding my own information or my institution of research. There would be no harm, physically or mentally to any of the participant or to those of whom the information is being used. Its findings are unlikely to cause any damage to others who are not involved in it and the participation of the respondents shall thoroughly be voluntary. I ensure that the research shall be designed, carried out, reported and documented accurately, transparently and objectively. I take the responsibility of producing this research in limits and framework designed for research practice. The research will not use any kind of controversial interviews or questionnaires which could breach the personal space or integrity of the participant. The case studies and articles used to gather secondary data and samples will not be misrepresented in anyways and will be purely used to give out positive effects towards the research and society. This research will not violate any community standards by any means. (Source: www.esomar.org [online]).

The Importance of Literacy Attainment in Primary Education

Why the government are driving to ensure literacy is a main priority, especially reading by six years of age. The importance of this and the effects on the child, parents, teachers and society. Abstract This paper attempts to analyse why the government are working so hard at ensuring all our primary children are reading by the age of six. The importance of this and the effect on children, teachers and society. It is well documented that reading is one of the most important abilities students acquire as they progress through their early school years. It is the foundation for learning across all subjects, it can be used for recreation and for personal growth, and it equips young children with the ability to participate fully in their communities and the larger society (Campbell et al, 2001) We will look at key issues and research which underpin the government literacy policy and ways in which it can be improved in school. In particular we focus on the extensive research between poor literacy attainment and behavioural problems within the primary setting. We trace the early literacy support programmes and how they are practised in the class room setting. We address the theoretical views on how language acquisition and literacy are interwoven. We look at the role of the teacher and school, and how policy and practice can smooth the progress of child literacy attainment by age of 6. Contents Title and Abstracti Chapter 11 Introduction 1 Chapter 22 Literature Review2 Research in to reading difficulties and behavioural problems2 2. 1 How does this affect the individual, parents, teachers and society5 2. 2 What impact does it have on the school6 Chapter 38 Analysis and critique of evidence base8 What challenges does it impose on the teachers nd what effective teaching methods are considered best practice8 3. 1 How does policy compare the theoretical research10 3. 2 Why do other countries not deem early literacy as important as the UK12 Chapter 413 Conclusion13 Chapter 514 Recommendations14 Bibliography15 Appendices19 Chapter 1 Introduction David Cameron’s conservative educational policy put his party on a collision course with the teaching profession, when he announced in November 07 that virtually every child in the country will be expected to read by the age of six under a conservative government. Cameron wants pupils to sit a reading test at the end of year one, and the target will be for all-bar those with serious learning difficulties, to pass. Their policy to scrap the key stage one testing, which was quite controversial, has already been enforced. His policy to concentrate on the absolute foundation stone, which is an ability to read, has yet to be enforced. He wants 90% of our children reading by the age of six, the other 10% with acute special needs will be given additional help (BBC News Nov 2007). It is also been observed that most children will naturally read by the age of six, as they progress though the foundation stage and key stage one. The problem arises with the children that do not progress so easily. At the age of four and five most children are less aware of their peers, they are more interested in their own ability to do. Yet as they turn six their awareness of others and their abilities become more interesting. This in-turn leads to the less gifted children realising that they are not as bright as other children, which can leads to them feeling disheartened and inadequate. Consequently this may lead to the less gifted children giving up and becoming disengaged, which can cause behavioural problems. Therefore if the teacher can help these children early, perhaps the achievement gap will not be so noticeable, therefore prevent further elevation of problems that arise from detachment (Teacher TV 2009). It is though however that at such a young age, this behaviour is more easily managed and can be reversed (Moffitt 2006). Apparently there is a scheme behind David Cameron’s policy. As early prevention may hopefully alleviate the need for expensive intervention later on. Chapter 2 Literature Review Research in to reading difficulties and behavioural problems As it has frequently been observed that reading difficulties are accompanied by behaviour problems ( Berger, Yule & Rutter, 1975; Rutter, Tizeird & Whitmore, 1970). However, the exact nature of the relationship has been difficult to elucidate. One possibility is that behaviour problems arise as a consequence of the child's reaction to being a poor reader. An alternative possibility is that the behaviour problems pre-date the reading difficulty and affect the child's capacity to profit from reading instruction. A third possibility is that behaviour problems are related to reading difficulties because they share a common cause. A likely candidate for such a common cause would be home background. Of course, none of these possibilities are mutually exclusive. All could be partly true, with causal influences operating in both directions between reading difficulties and behaviour problems, as well as coming from home background. Several studies have attempted to sort out these various possibilities. Two major approaches have been employed. The first is to compare children who have both reading difficulties and behaviour problems with children who have reading difficulties alone and with children who have behaviour problems alone. If the children with both reading difficulties and behaviour problems are similar in background to those with reading difficulties alone, rather than those with behaviour problems alone, then it is likely that behaviour problems arise in part as a consequence of reading failure. Conversely, if the children with combined problems are more similar in background to those with behaviour problems, then it seems likely that the behaviour problems are the primary disorder. A number of studies have been reported using this approach with antisocial behaviour problems. Rutter and Yule (1970) studied 9 to 10 year-old children on the Isle of Wight. They found that the children with combined problems were more similar in background to those with reading difficulty alone and concluded that the reading difficulties produced the behaviour problems. Sturge 1982) research with 10 year old children from inner London school found that those with combined problems had background characteristics in between those of the two groups with pure disorders. She concluded that in some cases, behaviour problems might be secondary to reading difficulties, but that this could not be the complete explanation. However, Varlaam (1974) also used inner London children and did find those with com bined problems to be more similar to children with pure reading difficulties. Generically speaking, then, the evidence using this approach has been consistent with the view that behaviour problems arise as a consequence of reading failure. The second approach adopted by researchers on this issue is the longitudinal study. With this approach, children are followed over the first few years of schooling. Those who have developed reading difficulties after this time are then studied to see if their behaviour problems were present before formal reading instructions began or whether they developed only later as a reaction to reading failure. Two studies have used the longitudinal approach. McMichael (1979) assessed Scottish children for behaviour problems and reading readiness at school entry and then two years later assessed reading achievement and behaviour problems. She found that antisocial behaviour problems preceded the later reading difficulties. However, the children with behaviour problems at school entry also had lower reading readiness skills. On the other hand, McMichael found no evidence of an increase in behaviour problems as a consequence of reading failure. Stott (1981), working with Canadian children, followed them over the first three years of schooling. His findings concurred with those of McMichael (1979) in that children who developed reading difficulties were found to have behaviour problems at school entry. Stott attempted to rule out the possibility that home background was a common cause of both behaviour problems and reading difficulties by grouping the children according to living conditions. He concluded that on the whole it was behaviour problems which led to reading difficulties, home background was not ruled out as a contributing factor Moffatt 2006) of Royal Institute of London did an extensive study on twins and genetics relating to poor literacy and behaviour problems in primary. His research was surprising, as his results, found genetics did not explain it. He feels it’s an environmental process, such as what goes on in the classroom, and this is important because it can be changed. His researchers say their fi ndings indicate that academic intervention can have a positive effect on behaviour. Programmes that target either reading problems or behaviour problems during the pre-school and early primary school years are likely to produce changes in both areas, the research concludes. 2. 1 How does this affect the individual, parents, teachers and society There is a strong link to literacy attainment and confidence levels with regards to socio-economic advantaged children. The facilitation of these opportunities in the home (quiet reading environments, encouragement to read as a leisure activity, having plenty of books readily available, all enhance the development. The negative effects of reading problems are also well documented (Harris & Sipay, 1990). There is evidence that reading disability is associated with social, economic, and psychological problems. The Green Paper,’ Excellence for all children, meeting the special educational needs’(DfEE 1997), acknowledged the Literacy task force recommendations for developing strategies to enable parents and schools to work together in supporting the literacy achievement for children with SEN’ (DfEE 1997, section 13, p 15). With this in mind it is important that the teacher offers practical advice and methods of intervention to the parents. The effects of good prevention and early intervention, along with effective parenting support will help reduce the risk of antisocial behaviour later on (Rutter 1979 and Epstein 1986). By working with the parents, the teacher can construct a plan of action that will facilitate the child’s learning. If the parents are poor, the teacher can suggest the child takes books from school to read at home with the parent. If the parent is not able to read or is working all the time, alternatives arrangements can be made for other family members to help. By taking a pragmatic approach the teacher will hopefully be able to help both the child and their parent with play based activities that will help to raise the spirits of the child while they learn (Wadworths 1991). The role of the teacher in literature-based instruction is one of decision maker, mentor, and coach. The teacher plans and supports activities that allow children to do those things one naturally does with literature (Routman, 1991). This role includes planning themes, helping students activate the appropriate prior knowledge, and supporting students in reading and responding to the literature in appropriate ways (Martinez & Roser, 1991). In some instances the teacher plans and teaches mini-lessons using the literature as a model for helping students learn a needed strategy or skill (Trachtenberg, 1990). As a mentor, the teacher serves as a model for reading and writing, by reading aloud to students, the teacher models language for them. Through shared writing (McKenzie, 1985), the teacher models all aspects of writing, grammar, usage, and spelling. By supporting students with such activities as shared reading, literature discussion circles, and response activities, the teacher plays the role of coach (Cooper, 1993). 2. 2 What impact does it have on the school The principal’s challenge is to ensure that teachers have knowledge of current literacy best practices and access to the tools and resources needed to incorporate them. The principals need to have a working knowledge of literacy and the latest research findings about learning. They also need to ensure high quality instruction is supported by strong literacy frameworks. This may include the opportunity for peer coaching, classroom visitations, and literacy courses made available. Along side the practical courses the principal should ensure all her teachers opinions and ideas are valued, it is her role to support, motivate and encourage excellence in all her teaching staff. As teachers are a major part of a vision for literacy, competent, caring, and committed teachers create the conditions for learning literacy. To assure quality learning for all young children, all teachers need a foundational knowledge about literacy learning, and they need to apply that knowledge with sensitivity and skill in daily reading and writing instruction (Little 1999). a growing body of evidence suggests that reading problems are preventable for the vast majority of students who encounter difficulty in learning to read, if these students receive extra support in the form of an early intervention program (Goldenberg, 1994; Hiebert & Taylor, 1994; Reynolds, 1991). All of the reading recovery programs reflect a model of reading as an active, meaningful, constructive process. Before-reading activities are used to build or activate relevant background knowledge, concepts, and vocabulary. Students are taught to monitor their reading to ensure that what they are reading makes sense. They are taught strategies for correcting word recognition errors that detract from meaning, and they are given opportunities for reacting and responding to selections they have read. The texts they are asked to read are read for enjoyment and for information. Other activities are developed within a framework of reading for meaning. Because reading for meaning is the constant point of reference and because students in these programs need substantial help in building word-identification skills, the amount of time spent in discussing selections and in teacher questioning about the selection is kept to a minimum (Reynolds and Wheldall 2007). Chapter 3 Analysis and critique of evidence base What challenges does it impose on the teachers and what effective teaching methods are considered best practice The Curriculum is only as good as the people who offer it; practitioners play a major part in how a child leans and indeed what they learn. Gerhardts (2004 and Gopnik et al. , 2001) point out that for a child to develop effectively, it is important that the child has a warm loving, nurturing relationship with their teacher. Pedagogy on which teachers can draw on: All children need to acquire knowledge of the alphabetic system to become skilled readers. The most direct way for teachers to accomplish this is by providing explicit, systematic phonics instruction as one part of a comprehensive early reading program. Systematic and explicit phonics instruction is effective for all students in kindergarten and grade 1, regardless of socioeconomic status or the ease with which children learn to read. Along side this runs the different modes of reading and their advantages to the children. The term mode of reading refers to the different ways literature may be read aloud by the teacher, shared, guided by the teacher, cooperatively, or independently (Cooper, 1993). By changing the modes of reading used for different students, teachers are able to scaffold instruction and provide different levels of support for students in order to make them successful in reading a piece of literature (Cooper, 1993; Cullinan, 1992; Tunnell & Jacobs, 1989) Reading aloud is the single most influential factor in young children’s success in learning to read. It builds listening skills and vocabulary, aids reading comprehension, and develops a positive attitude toward reading. The teacher reads aloud daily to the whole class from a variety of children’s literature (fiction, nonfiction, and poetry). Shared Reading The children (or a small group of children) see the text, observe the teacher reading it with fluency and expression, and are invited to read along. Eyes on text with voice support are shared reading. Shared reading gives an authentic reason to practice skills and strategies. It creates a low risk environment and supplies support so children can join in and see themselves as readers. Guided reading The teacher selects books from a variety of genres for a small group with the expectation that all children can read the selection at an instructional level (90 to 94 percent) with prompts and questions. Guided reading provides the teacher with time to observe reading behaviours. It lets the teacher see the children functioning as readers and helps the teacher know what to stress next to move the children forward. The child selects and reads a variety of genres, an integral component of all levels of reading development. Independent reading provides practice and builds fluency and comprehension. It also demonstrates that reading is a priority. It is a time to assist a student in choosing appropriate books and allows them time in reading books of their choice. This helps ensure success and enjoyment (Cheminais 2005). scaffolding instruction Which is a concept that has grown out of research on how individuals learn (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1986; Vygotsky, 1978). This concept is based on the idea that at the beginning of learning, students need a great deal of support; gradually, this support is taken away to allow students to try their independence. This is what Pearson (1985) called the gradual release of responsibility. If students are unable to achieve independence, the teacher brings back the support system to help students experience success until they are able to achieve independence (Cooper, 1993). By using this method it is hopefully more clear-cut which children are in need of more support. Modeling Through Storybook Reading Recent research clarifies the extreme importance of reading storybooks to young children both at home and in school. Very early, children begin to imitate that reading — at first by relying exclusively on picture clues and memory. With increased experience they begin to focus on the information that print conveys (Snow, 1983; Sulzby, 1985; Teale, 1987). 3. 1 How does policy compare the theoretical research Most all theorists regardless of their particular thesis, believe that nature and nurture are interwoven in a child’s development. As Chomsky’s belief in nature still relies on nurturing for a child to gain its full developmental potential. As he wrote â€Å"If a child is placed in an impoverished environment, innate abilities simply will not develop, mature, and flourish (Taylor and Woods (2005). Similarly, a child brought up in an institution may have ample experience and nutrition, but still may not develop normally, either physically or mentally, if normal human interaction is lacking†(Chomsky 1987 p 2). So as Chomsky, believes the child is born with specific linguistic knowledge; Skinner, is portrayed as believing that language is entirely a matter of conditioning; Piaget, who sees language development as an outgrowth of general cognitive development; and Bruner, who emphasises the importance of the social/interactional context in which language development takes place. All have a common link as one depends on the other to reach its true potential (McCartney K and Phillips D 2006). Every Childs development does depend on their physical, cognitive, social and emotional self. And each of these components of self depends in part, on the changes that are taking place in other areas of development (Shaffer 1992). In reality, this is some times overlooked by practitioners in their assessments and evaluations of our children. As the measurements of achievements rears it ugly head, and some teachers focus on the bright and gifted while the less gifted child is left to his own devises. Most school want to have a good record of achievement and thus instruct their teachers to comply with their wish to get the best results for the school as possible. For some teachers this is a bitter pill to swallow as their time is taken up by helping the gifted children reach the highest targets, unavoidably leaves the less gifted neglected. Ability tracking, is yet another thorn for the less gifted children as this is where students are grouped by their ability, some theorists argue that this undermines the self-esteem of low ability students. As children are placed on the red, yellow, blue or green table depending on how clever they are perceived to be, by the teacher. Thus contributing to poor academic achievement and a high number of children feeling disheartened and demoralised. As we mentioned earlier how children of six are more aware of their peers, this only highlights the fact, leaving the less gifted children believing they are stupid, so they stop trying to achieve. Rutters research in 1983 suggests that mixed ability groups are more advantageous for children in primary education and ability tracking was more sensible in the latter senior years at secondary. Rutter 1983) put high emphasis on the teacher’s attitudes towards their pupils as being vitally important to the Childs achievements. Motivation, praise, encouragement and a high expectation are all crucial to ensuring a child succeeds (Pollard 1997). 3. 2 Why do other countries not deem early literacy as important as the UK Dr Ken Spencer (2007) from the Institute of Learning at University of Hull, fought back in response to all the critics of Cameron, as they protested why other countries did not deem this an important issue. He made them aware of the reason why Scandinavian children can start reading at six: their language has a transparent writing system, in which each sound has only one letter associated with it. With such a writing system all children read in about six month, no matter when they start school. His research evidence shows that learning to read English will always take three or more years longer, than most other languages. There is now indisputable evidence that complex combinations of letters and their irregular behaviour interact to make English the worst example of alphabetical language. Chapter 4 Conclusion Language and literacy development, like all human development, will be heavily determined by the nature of the environment, and may be severely limited unless the environment is appropriate. A stimulating environment is required to enable natural curiosity, intelligence, and creativity to develop, and to enable our biological capacities to unfold. The fact that the course of development is largely internally determined does not mean that it will proceed without care, stimulation, and opportunity (Penn 2005). Like Chomsky perceived â€Å"teaching is not like filling a cup with water, but ore like enabling a flower to grow in its own way; but it will not grow and flourish without proper care†(Chomsky 1897,p1). There is evidence that teachers whom have a holistic view with a child centred approach, can lead to a more fruitful interaction between the realms of theory and practice, which in turn will benefit the child’s learning and behaviour. The examples of rese arch in the fields of literacy and development discussed, show how work which was originally theoretically motivated can lead to practical recommendations for intervention. Chapter 5 Recommendations It does appear that there is extensive evidence to suggest that poor teacher may have a lot to do with poor literacy attainment and behavioural issues. Perhaps David Cameron quest for literacy attainment will only be achieved once the teaching pedagogy improves. Adults, like children, learn better when they perceive a need for the information they are learning. Staff development should provide teachers with authentic, meaningful tasks that relate to improving classroom instruction. Helping teachers improve instruction must focus on more than just going through the motions of teaching. Showers, Joyce, and Bennett (1987) analyzed more than two hundred research studies on staff development and concluded that a major factor in how teachers teach is how they think about teaching. Staff development should help teachers increase their knowledge and learn to think about their instructional decisions. Having a basic level of knowledge about an innovation is important in helping teachers â€Å"buy in† to it (Showers et al. , 1987). Over the last fifteen years the emphasis on staff development has evolved in many ways, from workshop sessions to more comprehensive, collaborative approaches that focus on the individual needs and concerns of teachers (Waxman, 1987). Hopefully by improving our pedagogy and focusing on a more holistic child centred environment all children and teachers will benefit. The research literature to date has suggested pathways for us to take. It is up to us as a society to make the journey. BIBLIOGRAPHY BBC News (2007) Government Policy David Cameron London England Berger, M. Yule, W. & Rutter, M. (1975). Attainment and adjustment in two geographical areas—II. The prevalence of specific reading retardation. British Journal of Psychiatry, 126, 51()-5 Bruner, J. S. (1975) The ontogenesis of speech acts. Journal of Child Language Campbell, J. R. , Kelly, D. L. , Mullis, I. V. S. , Martin, M and Sainsburry, M. (2001). Framework and Specifications for PIRLS Assessment 2001. Second edn. Ch estnut Hill, MA: Boston College, PIRLS International Study Centre. Cheminais R, (2005) Every Child Matters : A New Role for SENCOs, London : David Fulton Publishers Chomsky (1987) Language, Language Development and Reading Noam Chomsky interviewed by Lillian R. Putnam Reading Instruction Journal, Fall 1987 Chomsky, N. (1986) Knowledge of language: it's nature, origin and use. New York: Praeger. Collins, A. , Brown, J. S. , & Newman, S. E. (1986). 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What Is a Coenzyme (Coenzyme and Cofactor Definition)

An enzyme is a macromolecule that catalyzes a chemical reaction. In other words, it makes an unfavorable reaction able to occur. Enzymes are built from smaller molecules to make an active subunit. One of the most important parts of an enzyme is the coenzyme. Key Takeaways: Coenzymes You can think of a coenzyme or cosubstrate as a helper molecule that aids an enzyme in catalyzing a chemical reaction.A coenzyme requires the presence of an enzyme in order to function. It is not active on its own.While enzymes are proteins, coenzymes are small, nonprotein molecules. Coenzymes hold an atom or group of atoms, allowing an enzyme to work.Examples of coenzymes include the B vitamins and S-adenosyl methionine. Coenzyme Definition A coenzyme is a substance that works with an enzyme to initiate or aid the function of the enzyme. It can be considered a helper molecule for a biochemical reaction. Coenzymes are small, nonproteinaceous molecules that provide a transfer site for a functioning enzyme. They are intermediate carriers of an atom or group of atoms, allowing a reaction to occur. Coenzymes are not considered part of an enzymes structure. They are sometimes referred to as cosubstrates. Coenzymes cannot function on their own and require the presence of an enzyme. Some enzymes require several coenzymes and cofactors. Coenzyme Examples The B vitamins serve as coenzymes essential for enzymes to form fats, carbohydrates, and proteins. An example of a nonvitamin coenzyme is S-adenosyl methionine, which transfers a methyl group in bacteria as well as in eukaryotes and archaea. Coenzymes, Cofactors, and Prosthetic Groups Some texts consider all helper molecules that bind to an enzyme to be types of cofactors, while others divide the classes of chemicals into three groups: Coenzymes are nonprotein organic molecules that bind loosely to an enzyme. Many (not all) are vitamins or are derived from vitamins. Many coenzymes contain adenosine monophosphate (AMP). Coenzymes may be described as either cosubstrates or prosthetic groups.Cofactors are inorganic species or at least nonprotein compounds that aid enzyme function by increasing the rate of catalysis. Typically, cofactors are metal ions. Some metallic elements have no nutritional value, but several trace elements function as cofactors in biochemical reactions, including iron, copper, zinc, magnesium, cobalt, and molybdenum. Some trace elements that appear to be important for nutrition do not appear to act as cofactors, including chromium, iodine, and calcium.Cosubstrates are coenzymes that bind tightly to a protein, yet will be released and bind again at some point.Prosthetic groups are enzyme partner molecules that bind tightly or covalently to the enzyme (remember, coenzymes bind loosely). While cosub strates bind temporarily, prosthetic groups permanently bond with a protein.  Prosthetic groups help proteins bind other molecules, act as structural elements, and act as charge carriers. An example of a prosthetic group is heme in hemoglobin, myoglobin, and cytochrome. The iron (Fe) found at the center of the heme prosthetic group allows it to bind and release oxygen in the lung and tissues, respectively. Vitamins are also examples of prosthetic groups. An argument for using the term cofactors to encompass all types of helper molecules is that many times both organic and inorganic components are necessary for an enzyme to function. There are a few  related terms also related to coenzymes: Apoenzyme is the name given to an inactive enzyme that lacks its coenzymes or cofactors.Holoenzyme is the term used to describe an enzyme that is complete with its coenzymes and cofactors.Holoprotein is the word used for a protein with a prosthetic group or cofactor. A coenzyme binds to a protein molecule (the apoenzyme) to form an active enzyme (the holoenzyme). Sources Cox, Michael M.; Lehninger, Albert L.; and Nelson, David L. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry  (3rd ed.). Worth Publishers.Farrell, Shawn O., and Campbell, Mary K. Biochemistry (6th ed.). Brooks Cole.Hasim, Onn.  Coenzyme, Cofactor and Prosthetic Group: Ambiguous Biochemical Jargon. Biochemical Education.Palmer, Trevor.  Understanding Enzymes. Halsted.Sauke, D.J.; Metzler, David E.; and Metzler, C.M. Biochemistry: The Chemical Reactions of Living Cells.  (2nd ed.). Harcourt/Academic Press.

How to Manage and Identify Pin Oak

Pin oak or Quercus palustris is named for a characteristic where small, thin, dead branches stick out like pins from the main trunk. Pin oak is among the most widely planted native oaks in the urban landscape, the third most common street tree in New York City. It tolerates drought, poor soils and is easy to transplant. It is popular because of an attractive shape and trunk. The green, glossy leaves show brilliant red to bronze fall color. In many cases, the pin oak can tolerate wet sites but be careful to manage watering and avoid wet sites. Specifics on Quercus Palustris Scientific name: Quercus palustrisPronunciation: KWERK-us pal-US-trissCommon name(s): Pin OakFamily: FagaceaeUSDA hardiness zones: USDA hardiness zones: 4 through 8AOrigin: native to North AmericaUses: large parking lot islands; wide tree lawns; recommended for buffer strips around parking lots or for median strip plantings in the highway; tree has been successfully grown in urban areas where air pollution, poor drainage, compacted soil, and/or drought are common. The Pin Oak Cultivars The lower branches on pin oak cultivars ‘Crown Right’ and ‘Sovereign’ do not grow down at a 45-degree angle as does the non-cultivar. This branch angle can make the tree unmanageable in close urban settings. These cultivars are thought to be better suited than the natural species as street and parking lot trees. However, graft incompatibility often leads to future trunk failure on these cultivars. Description of Pin Oak Height: 50 to 75 feetSpread: 35 to 40 feetCrown uniformity: symmetrical canopy with a regular (or smooth) outline  and individuals have more or less identical crown formsCrown shape: pyramidalCrown density: moderateGrowth rate: mediumTexture: medium Leaf Details Leaf arrangement: alternateLeaf type: simpleLeaf margin: lobed; partedLeaf shape: deltoid; oblong; obovate; ovateLeaf venation: pinnateLeaf type and persistence: deciduousLeaf blade length: 4 to 8 inches; 2 to 4 inchesLeaf color: greenFall color: copper; redFall characteristic: showy Trunk and Branches Can Be a Problem Trunk/bark/branches: bark is thin and easily damaged from mechanical impact; droop as the tree grows and will require pruning for vehicular or pedestrian clearance beneath the canopy; should be grown with a single leaderPruning requirement: needs little pruning to develop a strong structureBreakage: susceptible to breakage either at the crotch due to poor collar formation or the wood itself is weak and tends to breakCurrent year twig color: brown; greenCurrent year twig thickness: thin Pruning May Be Necessary Lower branches on a pin oak will require removal when used as a street or parking lot tree as they tend to droop and hang on the tree. The persistent lower branches can be attractive on a roomy large open lawn because of its picturesque habit when open-grown. The trunk is typically straight up through the crown, only occasionally developing a double leader. Prune any double or multiple leaders out as soon as they are recognized with several prunings in the first 15 to 20 years after planting. Pin Oak Environment Light requirement: tree grows in full sunSoil tolerances: clay; loam; sand; acidic; extended flooding; well-drainedDrought tolerance: moderateAerosol salt tolerance: lowSoil salt tolerance: poor Pin Oak — The Details Pin Oak develops nicely on moist, acid soils and is tolerant of compaction, wet soil, and urban conditions. When grown in acidic soil, pin oak can be a handsome specimen tree. The lower branches tend to droop, middle branches are horizontal and branches in the upper part of the crown grow upright. The straight trunk and small, well-attached branches make Pin Oak an extremely safe tree to plant in urban areas. It is extremely vigorous as far south as USDA hardiness zone 7b but may grow slowly in USDA hardiness zone 8a. It is very sensitive to soil pH above the high 6’s. It is water tolerant and is native to stream banks and flood plains. Pin Oak grows well in areas where water stands for several weeks at a time. One of the adaptive mechanisms of Pin Oak is a fibrous, shallow root system which allows it to tolerate flooded soil conditions. But as with any other tree, do not plant it in standing water or allow water to stand around the roots until the tree has become established in the landscape. Several years are needed after transplanting for the tree to develop this type of adaptive root system, and subjecting it to flooding too early could kill it. Plant trees in a slightly raised mound or bed if the  soil is poorly drained.